Dr. Abdurahman Baadiyow
This article provides an overview of ten key narratives in Somalia’s trajectory of historical development. These narratives include Somalia’s rich ancient history, its early maritime trade networks, and the significant influence of Islam on Somali society. It also examines the disruption caused by colonial powers, the role of Somali nationalism in shaping the modern state. It discusses the collapse of the Somali state as well as the efforts to rebuild it in 2000, focusing on clan-based power-sharing and the adoption of Islam as a legal framework. Additionally, it addresses the challenges of political culture in state rebuilding under federalism, the rise of political clannism and extremism like Al-Shabaab. It delves into Ethiopia’s recent policies towards Somaliland and their impact on Somali sovereignty. The article concludes by highlighting the resilience of Somali society despite state weaknesses and external pressures, offering a comprehensive understanding of Somalia’s complex historical trajectory and contemporary issues.
The first narrative highlights Somalia’s ancient civilization, which dates back thousands of years. Archaeological evidence reveals that sophisticated communities thrived in the region long before modern history. These early societies were known for their maritime skills and extensive trade networks with ancient Egypt, Persia, India, and China. Somalia was the ancient Land of Punt, renowned for its valuable commodities like gold and incense. The Somali people developed a rich cultural heritage, including unique architectural styles and skilled craftsmanship. This ancient legacy is still evident in Somali art, traditions, and social structures today. These narrative challenges the commonly accepted view that Somalia was merely a fragmented collection of clans with no historical coherence, and that the colonial powers were solely responsible for establishing the Somali state.
The second narrative describes the first factor that shaped Somali society which is a profound influence of Islam on Somali society, shaping its culture, social structure, and political landscape. Islam arrived in Somalia in the 7th century through Arab traders and missionaries, becoming deeply integrated into Somali life. It impacted social norms, legal practices, art, and architecture, fostering a strong sense of community and unifying diverse clans under a shared religious framework. Islamic teachings influenced various aspects of daily life, including social customs, education, and governance.
During the Middle Ages, the spread of Islam contributed to the emergence of Somali states, such as the Ajuran and Adal states, later being Multiethnic Muslim state where Somalis played crucial role. However, these states declined in the 17th century, leading to a period of fragmentation into clan-based states. This two centuries weakness, coupled with the rise of European colonial powers, resulted in the division and colonization of Somali territories by multiples powers. This summary indicates that strong and cohesive Somali states were effective in defending against external threats, like the Portuguese and Ethiopian highlanders. However, when these states collapsed and clan fragmentation weakened the country, external actors were able to capture Somali lands.
The third narrative is the second factor that shaped Somali society and highlights how colonialism introduced a starkly contrasting influence on Somalia’s existing Islamic culture. From the late 19th century, Somalia was divided among British, Italian, and French colonial powers, and Ethiopian Empire. The European rule imposed new political boundaries, economic systems, and educational models, significantly altering Somali society. Colonialism disrupted traditional social structures and introduced Western legal systems, creating conflicts with indigenous practices and Islamic law. This complex layering of authority often clashed with the pre-existing cultural and religious frameworks. This narrative demonstrates that while colonialism had a profound impact on the political elite and the process of state-building in Somalia, its influence did not extend deeply into Somali society.
The fourth narrative focuses on the rise of nationalism as the third factor in shaping Somali society and the ideological instrument in the creation of a modern Somali state. Fueled by a shared cultural and linguistic heritage, Somali nationalist movements strived for self-determination, and sought to overcome the colonial borders imposed by foreign powers. Leaders and intellectuals advocated for the unification of Somali territories into a single, independent state free from external control. The movement gained traction in the 1940s and 1950s with the formation of political organizations like the Somali Youth League (SYL) and other parties, which played a crucial role in mobilizing support and ending colonial rule in the Italian Somalia under the UN trusteeship and in the British Somali protectorate. These nationalist groups fostered a strong national identity and envisioned a modern state reflecting the aspirations of the Somali people. By 1960, Somalia achieved independence, fulfilling the nationalist vision of a unified, sovereign state.
The fifth narrative explores approaches of implementing Somali nationalism which created tensions with local traditions and neighboring countries. Influenced by European modernization theory, the nationalist movement sought a centralized system of governance, which clashed with deeply rooted clan allegiances and Islamic practices. The push for national unity led to diminish traditional clan structures, which were seen as obstacles to a cohesive state. Additionally, Somali nationalism extended beyond the country’s borders, advocating for the unification of all Somali-inhabited territories into a concept known as “Greater Somalia.” This ambition included regions in neighboring countries: Ethiopia, Kenya, and Djibouti, where ethnic Somalis also lived. This goal created significant tensions with the neighboring states, who perceived Somali nationalism as a threat to their territorial integrity. The pursuit of Greater Somalia led to the war with Ethiopia in 1977-1978, where Somalia was defeated, and its nationalist aspirations were damaged.
The sixth narrative discusses the rise and fall of the Somali state, which was built on Somali nationalism, and the factors that led to its collapse after 30 years. The collapse of the Somali state was due to multiple factors, but two major adversaries played a crucial role: the zero-sum elite political culture, which fueled internal clan divisions and led to reliance on external actors for support. These internal divisions were exacerbated by the rise of armed opposition groups based on clan affiliations, which were supported by Ethiopia. The military regime’s authoritarian rule and suppression of political space and radicalizing Somali nationalism, sparked conflict between the government and society. This condition weakened the government’s ability to maintain order, provide services, and govern effectively, creating a volatile environment prone to conflict. Externally, Ethiopia’s support for various armed opposition groups intensified internal divisions and pressures, culminating in the collapse of the Somali state in 1991. This collapse ushered in a prolonged period of anarchy and civil war for more than a decade.
The seventh narrative focuses on the failure of over 12 reconciliation attempts in the decade following the collapse of the Somali state and the eventual reestablishment of a new government in 2000 at the Djibouti Conference. This marked a significant shift in Somalia’s state-building strategy. The new government aimed to reconcile with its traditional roots by implementing a clan-based power-sharing system through the 4.5 formula and adopting Islam as the foundation for all laws. This approach sought to restore legitimacy and stability by using traditional mechanisms to promote unity and rebuild the nation. Additionally, the new state moved away from the ideology of Greater Somalia tacitly, instead focused on regional cooperation and integration. Moreover, efforts were made to improve relations with neighboring countries, especially Ethiopia, and to seek membership in the East African Community (EAC). By addressing the clan factor and pursuing closer ties with the regional community, the new Somali state aimed to establish a stable government that could achieve peace both internally and with its neighbors.
The eighth narrative focuses on the new challenges Somalia faces, such as the resurgence of clannism under the federal system and the rise of extremism claiming Islamic credentials. The federal system, designed to manage clan diversity and decentralize power, is often seen as a new form of clannism, with regional administrations dominated by specific clans, leading to competition and conflict. Additionally, federal member states frequently challenge the national government due to their early formation without first establishing legal frameworks. The rise of extremist groups like Al-Shabaab has further complicated state-building efforts, continuously fighting against the government and contributing to instability. Moreover, a new trend toward authoritarianism and a pervasive toxic political culture have emerged resuscitating governance culture of the military regime. This political environment has fostered ongoing conflict and hindered efforts to create a stable state. The influence of foreign patrons and external forces on political elites has further exacerbated and complicated the situation.
The ninth narrative addresses a new challenge in the Horn of Africa: Ethiopia’s recent policy of engaging with Somaliland, including potential recognition in exchange for access to a maritime corridor for a naval base. This move is perceived as a violation of Somali sovereignty that poses significant implications for regional stability, potentially drawing other countries into the Horn of Africa’s complex geopolitical dynamics. Ethiopia’s Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with Somaliland has alarmed Somalia’s central government, which sees it as a threat to its territorial integrity. Ultimately, a stable and unified Somalia aligns more with Ethiopia’s interests than a divided and weakened one, which could eventually pose challenges for both countries and thwarts their development plans.
The tenth narrative emphasizes the remarkable resilience of Somali society in the stateless or weakened state. Historically, Somali people has demonstrated an extraordinary ability to resist external domination, maintaining its cultural integrity. During the colonial era, for instance, while European powers managed to establish some level of political and military presence, their influence on the deeper cultural and social structures of Somali society was minimal. Even as Somalia has struggled with state-building challenges, the Somali people have remained steadfast in their commitment to defending their sovereignty. This resilience has been evident not only in historical contexts but also in contemporary challenges. For instance, despite ongoing internal conflicts and external pressures, Somalis continue to resist efforts to undermine their territorial unity and sovereignty. The ongoing strength and unity of Somali society suggest that any current or future attempts by external forces, including the Ethiopian regime or other regional actors, to weaken Somali sovereignty or exert control over Somali society will be met with significant resistance.
In conclusion, these ten key narratives provide a comprehensive understanding of Somalia’s historical journey and current political landscape. They highlighted the complex interplay between internal dynamics, such as political clannism, corruption, and fragmentation, and external influences from neighboring countries and international actors. Somalia’s path has been shaped by both internal divisions and external attempts to dominate its strategic territories. For Somalia to rebuild its state and achieve lasting stability, it must address these internal challenges and manage its external relationships effectively. By fostering a unified national identity, promoting good governance, protecting its sovereignty, and encouraging regional cooperation, Somalia can work towards becoming a more stable and resilient state.
Dr. Abdurahman Baadiyow
Email: abdurahmanba@yahoo.com
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Dr. Abdurahman Baadiyow is a Professor of Modern Islamic History and a Senior Adviser for the Somali President on Peace and Reconciliation.
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